“Why is this highly praised book so dull?”
Composed by Homer in the 8th century BCE, The Iliad and The Odyssey are epic poems set in the Greek world of the 13th century BCE. The Iliad focuses on events during the Trojan War, centering on the hero Achilles, while The Odyssey tells of the adventures of Odysseus after the war.
The Influence of These Epics on Western Literature
Ancient Greece was the cradle of Western culture, and these two epics are its earliest literary achievements. Their significance extends far beyond their original context, as countless authors throughout European history have drawn inspiration from them. To understand European literature, one must grasp the core of these works. However, many who attempt to read the original or faithful translations quickly become frustrated by their density and repetitive phrases.
These epics, often adapted for modern readers, were initially oral compositions, meant to be performed rather than read. For example, the constant repetition of phrases like “Achilles, son of Peleus” or “swift-footed Achilles” can irritate readers unfamiliar with oral storytelling traditions. Such repetition reflects their origins as oral poetry, where performers used these set phrases during live recitations.
Disorienting Beginnings: The Iliad
The opening lines of The Iliad can confuse readers who expect the epic to immediately dive into the story of the Trojan War. While the mythological cause of the war—the infamous judgment of Paris and the abduction of Helen—is well-known, The Iliad begins by invoking the Muse to sing of Achilles' rage, introducing a theme that drives much of the narrative.
Though the poem focuses on just a few days in the war’s tenth year, it still captures both the causes and the ultimate resolution of the conflict. The structure is not simple and linear, which can leave modern readers feeling disoriented.
A Simple Plot But Complex Storytelling
The plot of The Iliad is deceptively simple: Achilles, angered by being dishonored by the Greek commander Agamemnon, withdraws from battle, and as a result, the Greeks face near defeat. His close friend Patroclus enters the fight in his place, only to be slain by the Trojan hero Hector. Achilles, consumed by rage, re-enters the battle to kill Hector and avenge Patroclus’ death. The epic ends with Hector’s funeral after Achilles, despite his continued fury, agrees to return the body to Hector’s father, King Priam.
The Battles of the Iliad
To better understand the battle scenes in The Iliad, it helps to divide them by day. The fighting lasts just four days, with each day offering a shift in momentum between the Greeks and Trojans. The epic also frequently describes the exact details of how a warrior is struck down, which may seem monotonous to modern readers but would have captivated Homer’s original audience.
Another feature of The Iliad is the use of extensive similes and brief biographies of warriors. These digressions serve to give the characters greater depth and to introduce glimpses of daily life outside the battlefield. This technique allowed the audience to emotionally connect with characters who otherwise might have been faceless casualties of war.
Famous Episodes and Ring Composition
The Iliad employs a narrative technique known as ring composition, where the first and last sections mirror each other. For example, the epic opens with Achilles praying to his mother Thetis to seek Zeus’ favor, while the final book ends with Thetis convincing Achilles to return Hector’s body. Another example is the parallel between two fathers—Chryses, who offers gifts to ransom his daughter in the first book, and Priam, who offers ransom for Hector’s body in the final book.
Notable Scenes in the Iliad
Some of The Iliad’s most memorable moments include the sixth book, where Diomedes and Glaucus discover their ancestors were friends and exchange armor—a gesture symbolizing friendship even in war. Another poignant scene is Hector’s final meeting with his wife Andromache and their son, where the family’s brief happiness is shadowed by the inevitable tragedy.
The Odyssey: Three Major Themes
The Odyssey can be understood through three major themes: the coming of age of Odysseus’ son Telemachus, the adventures of Odysseus, and the homecoming of a long-lost hero.
Telemachus’ Journey
The first four books of The Odyssey are often referred to as the Telemachy, focusing on Telemachus as he embarks on a journey to find news of his father. He learns about the religious and political customs of Nestor in Pylos and hears stories of war and adventure from Menelaus in Sparta. This section serves as Telemachus’ rite of passage into adulthood.
Odysseus’ Adventures
Odysseus’ travels form the most famous part of the epic, though they take time to emerge. Early sections focus on his perilous journey home, encountering mythical creatures such as the Cyclops, Polyphemus, and the enchantress Circe. These encounters, while exciting, also symbolize Odysseus’ growth into a more cautious, strategic leader.
Return to Ithaca and Revenge
Upon returning to Ithaca, Odysseus must confront the suitors vying for his wife’s hand. Disguised as a beggar, he learns the truth of their treachery. The climax comes with the famous archery contest, where Odysseus, with the help of his son, slaughters all the suitors. This act of vengeance, while brutal, is portrayed as a necessary restoration of justice.
Debates Surrounding Homer’s Epics
Throughout history, scholars have debated whether Homer was a single poet or if the epics were the work of multiple authors. The existence of inconsistencies, such as characters dying and later reappearing, supports the theory that these epics may have been compiled from various oral traditions. However, the cohesive structure and thematic depth suggest that a master poet played a final role in shaping these works.
Questions to Consider
1. How do the heroes in The Iliad and The Odyssey compare to later heroes in classical and modern literature? Consider how values like honor, cunning, and sacrifice evolve.
2. Is Odysseus’ revenge on the suitors justified, or could it be seen as excessive? Does this violent act symbolize more than just personal vengeance?
3. How does the narrative structure of these epics, particularly the use of ring composition, enhance the storytelling? Would these works be as effective without these techniques?
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